INFORMATION PROCESSING

Computers, Data and Information

Quick revise

A computer is an information processing machine. Computers process data to produce information.

The sets of instructions that humans give computers are called programs or software.

Software that carries out a particular type of task for a user is often called applications software.

There are many reasons for using computers:

• Computers can work much faster than humans;
• Computers never get tired or need a rest;
• Computers can do jobs that it would be dangerous for a human to do;
• Computers can store large amounts of information in a very small space;
• Computers can find information very quickly;
• Computers never lose or misplace information.

The three stages of computing are input, processing and output.

A computer works through these stages by ‘running’ a program. A program is a set of step-by-step instructions which tells the computer exactly what to do with input in order to produce the required output.

Input

• This stage of computing is concerned with getting the data needed by the program into the computer.
• Input devices are used to do this.
• The most commonly used input devices are the mouse and the keyboard.

Processing

• The instructions about what to do with the input are contained in a program.
• During the processing stage the computer follows these instructions using the data which has just been input.
• What the computer produces at the end of this stage is called output.

Output

• This stage of computing is concerned with producing the processed data as information in a form that is useful to the user.
• Output devices are used to do this.
• The most commonly used output devices are the screen, which is also called a monitor or visual display unit (VDU) and the printer.

Data & Information

• Data is any collection of numbers, characters or other symbols that has been coded into a format that can be input into a computer and processed.
• Data on its own has no meaning, or context.
• It is only after processing by a computer that data takes on a context and becomes information.
• There are many types of data
• All data ends up being stored as a series of numbers inside the computer.
• Data can be input to the computer by the user in many different ways.
• The main types of data that can be input into a computer and processed are numeric, text, dates, graphics and sound.

1. Observation:

Observation method has occupied an important place in descriptive sociological research. It is the most significant and common technique of data collection. 

2. Interview:

Interview as a technique of data collection is very popular and extensively used in every field of social research. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire. Instead of writing the response, the interviewee or subject gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. The dynamics of interviewing, however, involves much more than an oral questionnaire.

3. Questionnaire:

Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data about groups of individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a questionnaire form is sent usually by post to the persons concerned, with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

4. Case Study Method:

According to Biesanz and Biesenz “the case study is a form of qualitative analysis involving the very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an institution.” In the words of Goode and Hatt, “Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied.” P.V. young defines case study as a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be that a person, a family, an institution, cultural group or even entire community.”

Forms of Data in ICT:

a)Text/character

b)Graphic

c)Audio and Video

Features of Information:

i) Timeliness : Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed timeframes. For effective decisionmaking, information must reach the decision-maker at the right time, i.e. recipients must get information when they need it. Delays destroys the value of information. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include up-to-date, i.e. current information.

ii) Accuracy : Information should be accurate. It means that information should be free from mistakes, errors &, clear. Accuracy also means that the information is free from bias. Wrong information given to management would result in wrong decisions. As managers decisions are based on the information supplied in MIS reports, all managers need accurate information.

iii) Relevance : Information is said to be relevant if it answers especially for the recipient what, why, where, when, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers which is useful and the information helps them to make decisions.

iv) Adequacy : Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity, i.e. MIS must provide reports containing information which is required in the deciding processes of decision-making. The report should not give inadequate or for that matter, more than adequate information, which may create a difficult situation for the decision-maker. Whereas inadequacy of information leads to crises, information overload results in chaos.

v) Completeness : The information which is given to a manager must be complete and should meet all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove costly to the organization.

vi) Explicitness : A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the recipients for decision making.

vii) Impartiality : Impartial information contains no bias and has been collected without any distorted view of the situation.

What is Communication and types?

Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning "to share") is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.

1)VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are informal, such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting. Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the caliber and complexity of those words, how we string those words together to create an overarching message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used while speaking. And when occurring face-to-face, while the words are important, they cannot be separated from non-verbal communication.

2)NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

What we do while we speak often says more than the actual words. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, posture, eye contact, hand movements, and touch. For example, if you’re engaged in a conversation with your boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to pay attention to both the their words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in agreement with your idea verbally, but their nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing, scrunched up face, etc. indicate something different.

3)WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of written communication have the same goal to disseminate information in a clear and concise manner – though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often lead to confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One important thing to remember about written communication, especially in the digital age, is the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed sentences and careless errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the message is something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.

4)LISTENING

The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of types of communication. Active listening, however, is perhaps one of the most important types of communication because if we cannot listen to the person sitting across from us, we cannot effectively engage with them. Think about a negotiation – part of the process is to assess what the opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it is impossible to assess that, which makes it difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.

5)VISUAL COMMUNICATION

We are a visual society. Think about it, televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with memes, videos, images, etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell products and ideas. Think about from a personal perspective – the images we post on social media are meant to convey meaning – to communicate a message. In some cases that message might be, look at me, I’m in Italy or I just won an award. Others are carefully curated to tug on our heartstrings – injured animals, crying children, etc.

Computer Systems

• Hardware is the name that is given to any part of a computer that you can actually touch.
• An individual piece of hardware is called a device.
• The basic hardware of any computer consists of a central processing unit (CPU) along with input, output and backing storage devices.

The central processing unit (CPU)

• This is the part of the computer where the searching and sorting of data, calculating and decision-making goes on.
• The CPU contains the Main Memory, the Control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

What is Technology?

Technology is the set of knowledge, skills, experience and techniques through which humans change, transform and use our environment in order to create tools, machines, products and services that meet our needs and desires. Etymologically the word comes from the Greek tekne (technical, art, skill) and logos (knowledge)

What is ICT?

Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.

The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives to merge the telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management. ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device, encompassing radio, television, cell phones, computer and network hardware, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and appliance with them such as video conferencing and distance learning.

ICT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving. It covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital form (e.g., personal computers, digital television, email, or robots). Theoretical differences between interpersonal-communication technologies and mass-communication technologies have been identified by the philosopher Piyush Mathur. Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals for the 21st century.

What are ICT tools?

The ICT tools are the latest technology or devices and concepts used in Information and Communication Technology among students to students, students to teacher interaction (e.g., flipped classroom, mobile apps, and clickers devices)

WHAT IS RADIATION?

Radiation is the process by which energy is emitted as either particles or waves. Broadly, it can take the form of sound, heat, or light. However, most people generally use it to refer to radiation from electromagnetic waves, ranging from radio waves, though the visible light spectrum, and up through to gamma waves.